By Amber Strong Makaiau & Gabrielle Ahuliʻi Ferreira Holt
In a recent breakout session at the Progressive Education Network (PEN) conference held at Wickliffe Progressive in Columbus, Ohio, one of the participants asked the group for a resource to help them learn more about progressive education’s defining characteristics and essential features. While no one in the room wanted to offer “a single fixed definition”–which, as Alfie Kohn (2015) explains, is “fitting in light of [the movement’s] reputation for resisting conformity and standardization” (p.2)–everyone did agree that a collection of progressive education definitions would be helpful for the work ahead. This blog is a small attempt to get started on such a resource, but is by no means finished or complete. It is a definite work in progress!
Mindful that the progressive education movement finds its roots in the discipline of philosophy–a field that gravitates toward questions, ideas, well-constructed but evolving arguments, and ongoing inquiry rather than prescription–the resources we’ve compiled do not claim to represent the be-all and end-all of progressive education. Instead, they offer a launching point for exploring some of the fundamental philosophical ideas and conceptual foundations that have both grounded and coalesced progressive educators over time. They highlight the ways in which having a centralized philosophy, rather than a set of well-defined practices, strategies, or curriculum has helped the movement endure over time. A collection of key ideas from some of the most prominent progressive education thinkers–they are a place to root one’s own evolving progressive education practice.
The resources are organized using a timeline that lists some of the key definitions and commentary about progressive education that have emerged since the movement’s founding. They begin with a number of Progressive Era (approximately 1897-1929) leaders who lived in the time period between the end of the Civil War (1865) and World War I (1917) and end with a Google AI definition of progressive education that was generated today. For the most part, all of the definitions are direct quotes, taken from primary sources so that you may interpret and apply them to your unique progressive education context. It is our expectation that this will be the first iteration of the list, and revisions will follow in the future.
Finally, we would love to hear from you. Who are we missing? Whose voice should definitely be included on the list? To help us build the resource, please email amakaiau@hanahauoli.org with your suggestions and feedback!
A TIMELINE OF PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION DEFINITIONS
1894 – Francis Parker’s Talks on Teaching
Francis Parker introduced progressive education in Quincy Massachusetts in the late 1870s: “He transformed our public schools. He found them machines, he left them living organisms; drill gave way to growth, and the weary prison became a pleasure-house…He breathed life, growth and happiness into our school rooms. The results are plain to be seen before the eyes of every one, solid, substantial, unmistakable” (pp. 9-10). Parker framed progressive teaching as an “art” (p.15). “I have been asked to explain the so-called Quincy system…it does not consist of methods with certain fixed details, but rather presents the art of teaching as the greatest art in all the world; and because it is the greatest art demands two things: first, an honest, earnest investigation of the truth as found in the learning mind and the subjects taught; and, second, the courageous application of the truth when found…The great mass of teachers simply follow tradition, without questioning whether it be right or wrong…The work of the next hundred years will be to break away from traditional forms and come back to natural methods…the true motive of all education…is the harmonious development of the human being, body, mind, and soul” (p. 17 -18).
The publication includes Parker’s description of progressive education approaches to: reading, spelling, writing, composition, numbers, arithmetic, geography, history, examinations, school government, and moral training.
1915 – John and Evelyn Dewey Define Progressive Education After Visiting Progressive Schools Across America
The following excerpts are taken from the Dewey's book Schools of Tomorrow:
“The tendencies that mark the schools…[are] greater freedom and an identification of the child’s school life with his environment and outlook; and, even more important, the recognition of the role education must play in a democracy” (preface-J.D). The schools all incorporate “changes that modern science and psychology have brought about in our way of looking at the world” (pp. 289 - 290). They are all bound by a common philosophy of education that values:
Physical Well-Being: “The necessity of ensuring the health of all young people as the foundation on which to build other qualities and abilities” (p.290).
Learning By Doing: “Pupils are learning by doing…When a pupil learns by doing he is reliving both mentally and physically some experience which has proved important to the human race; he goes through the same mental process as those who originally did these things. Because he has done that he knows the value of the result, that is fact” (pp. 291-292).
Educative Content Connected to Real Life: “The children must have activities which have some educative content, that is, which reproduce the conditions of real life. This is true whether they are studying about things that happened hundreds of years ago or whether they are doing problems [of today]” (p.292).
Curriculum is Backed by Scientific Fact: “The historical facts which are presented must be true, and whether the pupils are writing a play based on them or are building a viking boat, the details of the work as well as the main idea must conform to the known facts” (292-303).
Learning Increases with Complexity Through Mastery: [See the cooking example pp. 294-296].
Moral Development: “We have seen how this method of teaching necessitates greater freedom for the pupil, and that this freedom is a positive factor in the intellectual and moral development of the pupils…The moral value of working for the sake of what is being done is certainly higher than that of working for rewards” (p. 298).
Intrinsic Motivation: “In the schools where the children are getting their knowledge by doing things, it is presented to them through all their senses and carried over into acts; it needs no feat of memory to retain what they find out…Success gives a glow of positive achievement; artificial inducements to work are no longer necessary, and the child learns to work from love the work itself, not a reward of because he is afraid of punishment” (pp. 296-303).
Self-Directed Learning: “Activity calls for the positive virtues–energy, initiative, and originality–qualities that are worth more to the world than even the most perfect faithfulness in carrying out orders…[A student sees] the value of his work and so sees his own progress, which spurs him on to further results. In consequence his mistakes do not assume undue importance or discourage him. He can actively use them as help in doing better next time” (pp. 296-303).
Teachers Build Off Student Interests: “Another point that most of the present day reformers have in common, in distinction from the traditional way of looking at school work, is the attempt to find work of interest to the pupils…the attempt is not to make all the child’s tasks interesting to him, but to select work on the basis of the natural appeal it makes to the child. Interest ought to be the basis for selection in the things they need to learn…it is then the part of wisdom in selecting the work for any group of children, to take it from that group of things in the child’s environment which is arousing their curiosity and interest at that time” (p. 299 - 302).
Education for Democracy: “The conventional type of education which trains children to docility and obedience, to the careful performance of imposed tasks because they are imposed, regardless of where they lead is suited to an autocratic society. These are the traits needed in a state where there is one head to plan and care for the lives and institutions of the people. But in a democracy they interfere with the successful conduct of society and government. Our famous brief definition of a democracy, as ‘government of the people, for the people and by the people,’ gives perhaps the best clew to what is involved in a democratic society. Responsibility for the conduct of society and government rests on every member of society. Therefore, every one must receive a training that will enable him to meet this responsibility, giving him just ideas of the condition and needs of the people collectively, and developing those qualities which will insure his doing a fair share of the work of government. If we train our children to take orders, to do things simply because they are told to, and fail to give them confidence to act and think for themselves, we are putting an almost insurmountable obstacle in the way of overcoming the present defects of our system and of establishing the truth of democratic ideals.”
Learning How to Learn: “ teach…pupils how to learn from the world itself” (p. 307).
Social Justice: “With the spread of ideas of democracy, and the accompanying awakening to social problems, people are beginning to realize that every one, regardless of the class to which he happens to belong, has a right to demand an education which shall meet his own needs, and that for its own sake the State must supply this demand” (pp. 305-306). “Schools such as we have discussed in this book–and they are rapidly coming into being large numbers all over the country–are showing how the ideal of equal opportunity for all is to be transmuted into reality” (p.315 - 316).
1916 – John Dewey Frames Progressive Schools as Levers of Change For A Better Future Society
“As a society becomes more enlightened, it realizes that it is responsible not to transmit and conserve the whole of its existing achievements, but only such as make for a better future society. The school is its chief agency for the accomplishment of this end” (Dewey, 1916, p. 20).
1918 – The “Seven Principles of Progressive Education” Are Defined By the Progressive Education Association
“The aim of Progressive Education is the freest and fullest development of the individual, based upon the scientific study of his physical, mental, spiritual, and social characteristics and needs. Progressive Education as thus understood implies the following conditions, old in theory but rare in application:
I. Freedom to Develop Naturally.
II. Interest, the Motive of All Work.
III. The Teacher a Guide, Not a Task-Master.
IV. Scientific Study of Pupil Development.
V. Greater Attention to All that Affects the Child’s Physical Development.
VI. Co-operation Between School and Home to Meet the Needs of Child-Life.
Vii. The Progressive School a Leader in Educational Movements” (Graham, 1967, pp. 28 - 29).
1931 Lucy Sprague Mitchell on What it Means to Be a Progressive Education Teacher
“Our aim is to turn out teachers whose attitude toward their work and toward life is scientific. To us, this means an attitude of eager, alert observation; a constant questioning of old procedure in the light of new observations; a use of the world, as well as of books, as source material; an experimental open-mindedness, and an effort to keep as reliable records as the situation permits, in order to base the future upon accurate knowledge of what has been done. Our aim is equally to turn out students whose attitude toward their work and towards life is that of the artist. To us, this means an attitude of relish, of emotional drive, a genuine participation in some creative phase of work, and a sense that joy and beauty are legitimate possessions of all human beings, young and old. If we can produce teachers with an experimental, critical, and ardent approach to their work, we are ready to leave the future of education to them” (Mitchell, 1931, p. 251).
1932 - Helen Heyl Outlines “The Two Extremes,” Differences Between Progressive and Traditional Schools
“This chart does not represent the teaching of any school of thought, but merely indicates the two extremes in practice.
Traditional School
Child is sent to school which is kept until 4 o’clock after which he “explodes into freedom!”
This is a school for listening.
Children are pigeon-holded in long rows of desks.
Children sit quietly, studying their lessons.
Movement means marching in rows at signal, teacher-directed and teacher controlled.
Child learns unquestioning obedience to authority.
Keynotes are memorize, recite, pay attention.
Child’s mind is submitted to the grindstone of an educational discipline which dwarfs his capacity to think for himself.
AIM: Mental discipline which it is believed will produce good citizens.
Progressive School
Child goes to school and cannot get there early enough, he lingers in shops, laboratories, yards, and libraries until dusk or urgent parents drag him homeward.
This school is for working.
Children are seated in groups at light tables in comfortable chairs.
Children sit working at projects, asking questions as needs arise. They “learn by doing” under wise teacher guidance.
Movement means purposeful activity, with consideration for the rights of others, and leads to self-direction and self-control
Child learns obedience through participation.
Keynote: Experiences leading to growth.
Child is taught to think, to develop tolerant understanding, to question critically, to evaluate.
AIM: Growth and tolerant understanding which it is believed will produce good citizens and the improvement of the social order” (p. 602).
1938 – John Dewey Defines Progressive Education By Comparing it to Traditional Education
“If one attempts to formulate the philosophy of education implicit in the practices of the new education, we may, I think, discover certain common principles amid the variety of progressive schools now existing. To imposition from above is opposed expression and cultivation of individuality; to external discipline is opposed free activity; to learning from texts and teachers, learning through experience; to acquisition of isolated skills and techniques by drill, is opposed acquisition of them as means of attaining ends which make direct vital appeal; to preparation for a more or less remote future is opposed making the most of the opportunities of present life; to static aims and materials is opposed acquaintance with a changing world” (Dewey, 1938, pp. 19-20).
1942 The Eight Year Study Revealed Key Outcomes of a Progressive Education
Carried out over a ten year period, 1,475 students from 30 progressive schools were matched with an equal number of graduates from traditional schools, and their educational outcomes were compared. “Boys and girls educated in so-called ‘progressive’ schools show more leadership, think more clearly, have a better understanding of democracy, take a keener interest in good books, music and art and get slightly better grades in college than those from traditional schools” (p. 305). Other outcomes (from p. 306) included progressive students:
Having higher grades
Winning more academic honors
Having more intellectual drive
Being more precise, systematic and objective in their thinking
Being clearer ideas about the purpose of their education
Being more resourceful in dealing with practical problems
Participating in art, music, and drama more often
Joining clubs, participated in extracurricular activities and student government
Being more interested in news and world affairs
Being more careful in choosing a career (p.30
1948 – Caroline Pratt Describes Progressive Education Classrooms and Schools
“The classroom was a place where work was done. The workers could not be fastened down; they had to come and go about their various jobs, fetch supplies, seek advice, examine, compare, discuss. The work got done, not in proportion to the silence in the room, but in proportion to the responsibility of each worker to his job and the group. Some were more able, more responsible workers than others – as among adults. And, as among adults, there was a supervisor (not a boss, however) directing, counseling, channeling the abundant energies of these young workers, keeping the balance among personalities, keeping the schedule of the day’s program and constantly varying tasks, checking the accomplishment of both the group and individual” (pp. 5-6).
“In our way of teaching, the children learned by playing…I saw it as the urge to play…I saw the urge to see, touch, experience everything firsthand…True, there comes a time in a child’s learning about his constantly expanding world when he can no longer go out and see for himself. For the faraway and long ago he must turn to books and museums. But the moment when he must begin to do his learning from secondhand sources is a critical one. If we thrust him toward it too soon before he has learned to gather his facts and relate them for himself, to ask his own questions and find his own answers, then we have opened another breach through which the desire to learn can be lost…the urge to learn with a purpose, purpose that is immediate, practical, and within the scope of a child to understand. It is as much good to a child to know his three Rs by rote, to have been poured full of knowledge and skills without the ability to use them, as it is to a man to know the principles of swimming and not be able to save himself from drowning” (p. 13-14).
“I began to see education not as an end in itself, but as the first step in a progress which should continue during a lifetime. Most people considered their education finished when they finished school. But it seemed to me that a school’s job was quite the opposite–not to finish, but to begin education…A school’s function could become that of developing in children the kind of thinking and working attitudes which would enable them to take over their own future growth” (p. 21).
1984 Barbra Biber Connects Progressive Education to Social Justice Education
“When John Dewey turned to revolutionizing educational experience as a channel toward reconstructing society, he provided for many of us who were young in those early decades of the century a means of transforming general ideals for social change into the reality of revolutionizing a potent social instrument—the school system...if education was ultimately to effect social change, we had to bring the reality of how the world functions into the class-room curriculum; if we expected children to become awakened to the advantages of a democratic society, we had to provide the experience of living democratically in the social setting of the schoolroom, of being part of a cooperative structure characterized by egalitarian interpersonal relations” (Biber, 1984, p. 309).
2007 – William Hayes Offers a Twenty-First Century Comparison of Traditional vs. Progressive Approaches to Education
In an attempt to present a “neutral” comparison between traditional and progressive approaches, Hayes explains:
Traditional Approach
The specific curriculum and educational outcomes as well as the majority of the classes to be taken are prescribed by the state or local district
Teachers have as their primary function introducing students to content knowledge and skills as outlined in the mandated curriculum
The tools used by teachers are primarily textbooks and workbooks. Today these are being supplemented often by the use of technology such as powerpoint presentations
Progressive Approach
The curriculum is more flexible and is influenced by student interest.
Teachers are facilitators of a learning environment in which students can use a wide variation of activities to learn in large part through discovery.
Progressive teachers use a wider variety of materials and activities which allow individual and group research. This often includes the utilization of community resources (p. xiii).
2015 – Alfie Kohn Defines Progressive Education
“Despite such variations, there are enough elements on which most of us can agree so that a common core of progressive education emerges:
Attending to the Whole Child: helping children become not only good learners but also good people, attend to the social, emotional, and intellectual needs of children
Community: people learn from one another in caring democratic communities
Collaboration: emphasis on collaborative problem solving
Intrinsic Motivation: “What’s the effect on students’ interest in learning, their desire to continue reading, thinking, and questioning?”
Deep Understanding: organize learning around problems, projects, and questions — rather than around lists of facts, skills, and separate discipline
Active Learning: the school is learner centered and students engage in constructing ideas
Taking Kids Seriously: teachers are scientists who study children and society, take cues from children and design learning alongside them, both as individuals and as a group
Social Justice: A sense of community and responsibility for others isn’t confined to the classroom; indeed, students are helped to locate themselves in widening circles of care that extend beyond self, beyond friends, beyond their own ethnic group, and beyond their own country. Opportunities are offered not only to learn about, but also to put into action, a commitment to diversity and to improving the lives of others” (pp. 2-4).
2015 – Tom Little Defines Progressive Education After Visiting Progressive Schools Across America
“Progressive Education prepares students for active participation in a democratic society, in the context of child-centered environment, and with an enduring commitment to social justice. This includes six core strategies passed down from Dewey and Parker:
Attention to children’s emotions as well as their intellects;
Reliance on students’ interests to guide their learning;
Curtailment or outright bands on testing, grading, and ranking;
Involvement of students in real-world endeavors, ranging from going on field trips to managing a farm;
The study of topics in an integrated way, from a variety of different disciplines; and, not least;
Support for children to develop a sense of social justice and become active participants in America’s democracy” (p. 52).
2015 – Bruce and Eryman Offer International Perspectives on Progressive Education
“The progressive impulse in education...is defined in different ways, but generally it aims to develop self-actualizing individuals who can take charge of their own lives and participate fully in the creation of a greater public good…[Progressive education has two essential elements]: (1) Respect for diversity, meaning that each individual should be recognized for his or her own abilities, interested, ideas, needs, and cultural identity, and (2) the development of critical, socially engaged intelligence, which enables individuals to understand and participate effectively in the affairs of their community in a collaborative effort to achieve a common good” (p.1 -4).
In sum, progressive education is: child centered, constructivist, experiential, inquiry-based, caring, holistic, multicultural, place-based, hands-on, problem-based, discovery oriented, project-based, and carried out in open classrooms. It prioritizes: thematic studies that integrate across disciplines; the situated, embodied, emotional, and creative aspects of human development; critical thinking, racial understanding, democracy, social justice, and national economic planning. It aims to develop critical, socially engaged intelligence, active citizenship, participation, and strong democracy (p.4-6).
2024 The Human Restoration Project Creates A Resource for Caregivers To Support Their Understanding of Progressive Education in the Modern World
This set of Frequently Asked Questions about progressive education is a resource for caregivers who want to better understand what progressive education is, and for educators and schools who want to address common questions caregivers may have about shifting toward progressive practices. The questions below are answered in the resources using narrative, infographics and citations from current scholarship and research:
What is progressive education?
What are some key concepts in progressive education?
So how is it different from what typically happens at school?
Where does that name “progressive” come from?
Why would my child’s teacher or school shift to progressive education?
Does progressive education help kids learn? Is it “evidence-based”?
How will I know how my child is doing at school?
Will they still get a grade? Will they still get a transcript? How will they get into college?
How does progressive education help with college and career readiness?
Can progressive education work in public schools?
2024 The Progressive Education Network Defines Progressive Education Today
The purpose of education transcends preparation for college or career. Schools nurture citizens in an increasingly diverse democracy. Within the complexities of education theory, practice, policy, and politics, we promote a vision of progressive education for the 21st century that:
Engages students as active participants in their learning and in society
Supports teachers’ voice as experienced practitioners and growth as lifelong learners
Builds solidarity between progressive educators in the public and private sectors
Advances critical dialogue on the roles of schools in a democratic society
Responds to contemporary issues from a progressive educational perspective
Welcomes families and communities as partners in children’s learning
Promotes diversity, equity, and justice in our schools and society
Encourages progressive educators to play an active role in guiding the educational vision of our society.
The purpose of school expands beyond prevailing education policy and practice. Progressive educators support their students’ deep intellectual development and healthy identity formation—as developing individuals, as active learners within a school community, and as engaged citizens in the broader world. Education must:
Amplify students’ voice, agency, conscience, and intellect to create a more equitable, just, and sustainable world
Encourage the active participation of students in their learning, in their communities, and in the world
Respond to the developmental needs of students, and focus on their social, emotional, intellectual, cognitive, cultural, and physical development
Honor and nurture students’ natural curiosity and innate desire to learn, fostering internal motivation and the discovery of passion and purpose
Emerge from the interests, experiences, goals, and needs of diverse constituents, fostering empathy, communication and collaboration across difference
Foster respectfully collaborative and critical relationships between students, educators, parents/guardians, and the community.
2024 A Google AI Generated Definition of Progressive Education
Progressive education is an educational movement that focuses on the child's learning experience and development over formal learning and curriculum content. It's based on the idea that children are naturally curious and motivated to learn, and that they should be encouraged to explore and experiment.
Progressive education is more student-centered than traditional education, and it often emphasizes critical thinking skills and active participation. Some characteristics of progressive education include:
Experiential learning: Students learn by doing and making sense of the world around them.
Student-centered learning: Teachers prioritize student interests and needs when planning lessons.
Process orientation: The process of imagining a project and figuring out how to complete it is as important as the project itself.
Fluid nature: Progressive education is more fluid than traditional education, which has a more rigid structure.
Some principles of progressive education include: Learning by doing or experiential learning, discussion, interactivity, and interdisciplinary learning.
FOUNDATIONAL PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION TEXTS
Books
Biber, B. (1984). Early education and psychological development. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Bruce, C. M., & Eryman, M. Y. (2015). Introduction: The progressive impulse in education. In M. Y. Eryman & B. C. Bruce (Eds.), International handbook of progressive education (pp. 1 - 52). Peter Lang Publishing.
Dewey, J. & Dewey, E. (2023). Schools of tomorrow. University Press of the Pacific. Honolulu, HI. (Original book published in 1915)
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education. Pennsylvania State University.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. Touchstone.
WorldCat listing
Bookshop
Graham, P. (1967). Progressive education: From arcady to academe: A history of the progressive education association, 1919–1955. New York: Teachers College Press.
Hayes, W. (2007). The progressive education movement: Is it still a factor in today’s schools? Rowman & Litterfield Education.
Heyl, H. H. (1932). The Two Extremes. The Journal of Education, 115(20), 602–602. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42845471
Little, T. (2015). Loving Learning: How Progressive Education Can Save Americaʻs Schools. Norton.
Parker, F. (1896). Talks on teaching. E.L. Kellogg & Company.
Pratt, C. (1948). I Learn From Children: An Adventure in Progressive Education. Grove Press.
WorldCat listing
Bookshop
Articles
Kohn. A. Progressive Education: Why It's Hard to Beat But Also Hard to Find.
Mitchell, L.S. (1931). A cooperative school for student teachers. Progressive Education, 8. 251-255.
The High School Journal. (1942). What did the eight year study reveal? (pp. 309 - 305).
ABOUT THE AUTHORS:
Dr. Amber Strong Makaiau is a Specialist at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Director of Curriculum and Research at the Uehiro Academy for Philosophy and Ethics in Education, Director of the Hanahau‘oli School Professional Development Center, and Co-Director of the Progressive Philosophy and Pedagogy MEd Interdisciplinary Education, Curriculum Studies program. A former Hawai‘i State Department of Education high school social studies teacher, her work in education is focused around promoting a more just and equitable democracy for today’s children. Dr. Makaiau lives in Honolulu where she enjoys spending time in the ocean with her husband and two children.
Gabrielle Ahuliʻi Ferreira Holt is the librarian at Hanahauʻoli School in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. She has a MLIS from the University of Hawaiʻi and a BFA from the University of British Columbia (situated on the unceded territories of the xwməθkwəy̓əm [Musqueam], Skwxwú7mesh [Squamish], Stó:lō and Səl̓ílwətaʔ/Selilwitulh [Tsleil- Waututh] nations.) She is a third-generation graduate of Hanahauʻoli.
ʻO Gabrielle Ahuliʻi Ferreira Holt ke kahu puke ma ke kula o Hanahauʻoli, ma Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. He MLIS kona mai ke kulanui o Hawaiʻi ma Mānoa, a he BFA kona mai ke kulanui o British Columbia (ma ka ʻāina ʻōiwi no na poʻe xwməθkwəy̓əm (Musqueam), Skwxwú7mesh (Squamish), Stó:lō and Səl̓ílwətaʔ/Selilwitulh (Tsleil- Waututh).
